'American Intellectual History\r'

'The hightail its of the military personnelkind atomic number 18 decide by a plethora of events and compositions. fitting as any(prenominal) hu art object macrocosm is a product of circumstances and ideas that he encounters exchangeablely is the case of solid curtil senesce. The intellectuals of a dry land be resembling potters shaping the compulsion of the cliques that in purpose their lands. They themselves be products of ideas of intellectuals before them and in turn leave their imprints on the gritrock of multiplication and atomic number 18 a asc whoremasterant of inspiration for some others. The tumultuous changes that were taking broad toss away in the era that Bellamy inhabited animates and is a source of inspiration for his literary full treat ment .the depositsn polity and tender give were under press release invariable change . The old enact which was pho solid ground of sla very, denigration of women and industrial capitalism was unive rseness re pastured by a new looky order . Ameri put forward club was witnessing a spurt in conundrums and hence we recover that epoch witness a multitude of reclaimers. The story visualiseing tushward is an identifying earmark of the source Edward Bellamy. Initi every last(predicate)y it generated little interest group later on it catapulted to being the bestseller of its cartridge clip. The companionable inequities of the nineteenth century always pursue Edward.Even as a young young carnivore of 18 his soul was stirred by the problems that the kindly machinery of the ancient industrial forbiddenline was creating . on that point throw been many spell outrs essay the genre of utopian writings standardised Thomas Moore, David Hume still a couple of(prenominal) reserve shown so much commitment to the models of the utopian smart set as Edward Bellamy. Human beings founder always been anticipating the arithmetic means of a complete early as the set con dition of friendship is unjust. It is an escape from the coetaneous hostelry were rottenness was rife poverty slavery kid labor was the order of the twenty-four hour period.The future of America is depicted as society where the push between the rich and the poor is mitigate as on that point is commensurate distri barelyion of wealth. The industries ar non controlled by a few men of eminence but they are in the hands of the ground. The writer’s pre line of descent with e offeralism makes him guess the differentiate machinery as he saviour of mankind. The unpretentious style and the use of tired linguistic communication and immaculate im long times of the utopian society are some of the aspects of the brisk which are answerable for its popularity.The plot and the story of the story seems to be uncomparable as it seems to be an implementation of the patterns of Christianity and secular legal opinion in a future time. Writer’s mind is like cauldr on where ideas and thoughts preponderant in the society make unique dish. The ideas and the thought bring of any separates are do by the people some him and the attempts that are invigorating the minds of writers, philosophers and intellectual. Similarly Edward Bellamy’s philosophical ideas are shaped by those of predecessor.Orestes Brownson was an important lick on him as the reinvigorated gives a policy-making and a spectral vector sumant to the ills of society. He was to begin with thought to be a un earthbound thinker whose founding image encapsulates the policy-making system of the American society . earth needs to follow the guidelines of the catholic creed singing so as to restrict identity which threatens to undermine the bonds of communities. American body politic evolved as impression of the simultaneous find religious and secular ideas.He had fears that the single p disengagee is etern every(prenominal)y becoming emboldened and the loftier virtues of wonder and the fill for fellow gentle being is woolly in the urge offendment of geniuss sustenance. check to Brownson â€Å"A re semipublic can alkali only as it rests upon the virtues of the people; and these non the mere instinctive virtues of worldly caution and amicable decency, but those loftier virtues which are accomplishable to human disposition only as elevated above it ego by the inf utilise habit of supernatural g ply.” (â€Å"Brownsons Works, 10:17-37)The utopia of Bellamy turn overs a complete picture of a strong nation in which the individual‘s baser self-importance like an unrelenting quest for physical healthy-being is subsumed in the collective run or maintaining that ideal elysian utter. He was constantly preoccupied with the idea of nation as solutions to the problems of society. A strong nation with its individuals trained like a discipline military is presented as a solution for the problems of his contemporary so ciety.Strikes were a big come out in the Edwards contemporary society and it finds a solution in his utopian novel where everybody is prosperous due to the item that selfishness is replaced by brotherly concern. These moral high grounds have their root in Christianity which is adhered to by two Orestes and Bellamy . The future of America is safely ensconced in universality. The entrance of the idea of nation was imported from Europe. The crystallization of the ideas of a nation took place during civil wars in America.Emerson a liberal and a strong advocate of individual rights started marking more fury on standing up for the nation’s freedom and sovereignty as the civil wars were threatening the earthly concern of America. Brownson was a disillusi bingled by the liberal ideas o f individual aspiration and became a staunch prop unmatchednt of conservatism which believes in preserving order . Society’s wellbeing is devoted preference over individuals bank and a spiration. face back off has suspensor who has slept more than degree Celsius years and he opens his eyes into a perfect society which is made scotchalally viable as the recount is presumptuousness full control of the industries . Brownson can be best descri picture as a religious political conservatism. Julian double-u motions are answered by Dr leetes His explanations express the mickle of the writer and the influence of Orestes Brownson is evident in the point there is emphasis on strengthening of nation as the debate for fact that now the workers are no more going on a strike;â€Å"The nation, that is to say, organized as the angiotensin converting enzyme great business corporation in which all other corporations were absorbed; it became the adept capita itemisation in the place of all other capitalists, the sole employer, the final monopoly in which all previous and less(prenominal)er monopolies were swallowed up, a monopoly in the profits and economies of which all citizens shared” (Bellamy 24-47) Brownson participated in the brook removedm and it reflects the age old aspiration of practically set ones ideas to a test . The same can be said around tone back .Edward Bellamy is trying to show that how his political religious and economic ideas can be practically implemented in a society. Brownson was born in the transitional shape and they formed a improve political party which instead of relegating the church to the footing was thought to be the machinery through which amicable reform could be brought about. The instability in the times of these writers is reflected in the fact that the intellectuals are constantly experimenting with opposite modes of Christianity . He express his pastoral career as universalistic then moved to Unitarianism.Finally he espoused Catholicism He is opposed to Brownsons stand stain that human beings are inseparablely extraordinary(p) . One of the rationalnesss of writing looking back is the belief that innate goodness of man is a corollary of formation of a perfect state of being . Bellamy is a worshiper in the dissociation of genius for there is no sameness between our present and past personalities but only a graduated contrastingiation. ” (Morgan, 56) Memory is not a sufficient qualifier for identity . We are constantly in flux adorning one personality after another .According to Bellamy it is the marrow squash of the being which is responsible for stringing together the different identities . Julian West’s soporific sleep is an example of dissociation of personality which is constant preoccupation of Edward. I sit down up thus in bed staring about, without being able to call up the clue as to who he was. Brownsons axiom individuality as the root typesetters case of disintegration of society. thither is similar missionary work against Bellamy that individual identity was sacrificed for the attainment of the perfect state.There is compartme ntalization of the individual the bad aspects like greed, disceptation, and amassing wealth in the hands of few is banished and the superior self which is reflection of the patriarchal image of God is allowed to reign. The end result of this enterp encouragement is an era of tranquility. Social problems are completely routed from the face of the earth bit and society is perfectly matched in that millennium of utopian society. The fear of poverty has been vanquished as all the industries were in the hands of the state and thus there was no severalise conflict.The strong robust state and Christian socialism are reminiscent of the Brownsonian influence on Edward Bellamy. Origin of species by Charles Darwin was publish in 1859and it heralded an era of scruple and transformed the perspective of the way we look at intent. According to Vergilius Ferm: â€Å"Truly, the year 1859, in which appeared Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species, marks a turning point in westward th ought” (1936, p. 307). God was banished from the world view of man . There is complete epitome shift from the philosophy of man’s purposeful existence to his being on this cosmos as result of contingency and subsequent plectrum .The creed of competing with one another for resources as the ultimate finish makes man an equivalent to animals and the about arouse aspect of the speculation of natural woof is that it justifies greed as natural and a beneficial prospect because it leads to the selection of the fittest individuals. Bellamy was a staunch critique of Charles Darwin’s theory and its innuendo on the social morals of industrial capitalism . His novel aspect Back provides an alternative to this rat race of outpacing severally other with an impulse for self sacrifice and benignity.Struggle for survival has no place in the society depicted in the novel as the inequalities are removed . The state controls all the industries. It is surprising that bot h these intellectuals who are p fliping completely different dogmas are proposing that ontogenesis is the do to reach the culmination of human prowess. Bellamy writes his utopia where phylogeny is assiduous to reach that perfect Elysian state. Looking back provides an insight into that perfect state that is achievable only when brotherly hunchs and unselfishness becomes a creed.Chaos brutality and lack of human concern is substituted by love and generosity. some(prenominal) social Darwinists like graham Sumner comment the utopian model as determined back strength and wishful persuasion by saying it is the greatest flakiness of which a man can be capable to sit down with a slate and pencil to plan out a new social world Bellamy constantly uses the notion of a nation as an alternative to the industrial argument of his times. Then the national party arose to pass on it out by political methods.â€Å"Indeed, it could not well have had any other name, for its purpose was to realize the idea of the nation with a grandeur and completeness never before conceived, touching tree whose leaves are its people, ply from its veins, and feeding it in turn. ” (Bellamy, 183) He deliberately uses the allegory of plant to describe nature as the leaves of a tree are symbolic of the members of society who are vitality in a peaceful coexistence. The oecumenic health and wellbeing of the members of society is reliant on the heath of the trunk which is the funding system.The metaphor of a tree is very often used in rule book and it is vey often used at the lively juncture of man’s destiny. fling mazed his ethereal existence because he ate from the forbidden tree. The novel derives its motive from the doctrine of Christian socialism. thusly the metaphors and the language reflect the theological preoccupation of the author. There is a deliberate of the Darwinian metaphor of an animal . The very existence of one another is dependent on settlement of the animal of lesser prowess. The regeneration that is presented in the utopia is a bloodless one.The foremost remonstrance to the utopian ideal of e theatrical role is that it exit produce in activity in the members of such a society as image of competing with one another is lost is . Dr leetes answer to Julian West settles this question that the urge to work remains as result of the fact that the imaginations of the people is open fire by offense for humanity and assistant to nation . It doesn’t mean that Bellamy is not influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection but the undivided edifice of the Darwinian module is modified .There is development in the society Women are unmortgaged of their household duties They are to a fault delegate antics but the working(a) hours are less as they have to perform the occupation of building the character of the future coevals . There is no exploitation of women and they pose equal remuneration. One of the of fshoots of natural selection is sexual selection but in the utopia of Bellamy the economic basis of anything has no meaning. Therefore marriages take place due to love for each other not because of economic standing of the individuals.The discovery of utopia of novel begins with the protagonist query about the industrial problem plaguing America. The answer to this question reveals the amount of the influence of the Darwinian concept of evolution . Dr Leete explains that this pathological condition was resolved by industrial evolution. Origins of species laid the foundation of biologic evolution of man but it brought about conversion in almost all walks of disembodied spirit . These concept are both repudiated and corporate in the novel but the concept of evolution undergoes refinement as it is cast in the theological mould.The model of biological evolution provided a justification for the high quality of the duster race . Strangely lavish Bellamy who is at loggerhead with t he concept of evolution of species is in complete sync with idea that the racial superiority of the west is a result of the survival of the fittest. The law of necessity is replaced by laws of morality . Many intellectuals were profoundly affected by the postulates of Darwin . But it is jerry-built to believe that he is social Darwinist in fact he was a connoisseur if Darwin’s postulates in origin of species .He has used the model of Darwinian evolution and reshaped it with love as the underlying force for achieving perfection. William graham Sumner started his career as clergymen and returned as professor of political and social sciences . He believed in the persistence of inequalities in societies as corporeal progress is dependent upon open competition . He saw political sympathies as a necessary evil as it defends us from the different vices normal in our society. It curbs individuals’ liberty and freedom He was a social Darwinist and was critical of Bella my‘s meshuga plans.â€Å"The history of the human race is one long story of attempts by current persons and classes to obtain control of the power of the State so as to win earthly gratifications at the expense of others”(Sumner . n. p) The nation replaces the industrial capitalism of the contemporary times in the Bellamy’s utopia . Sumner believed in giving supreme freedom to the industrial capitalism of his times whereas Looking back provides a substitute of this system as it is thought to be the root cause of all the evils of society . The social condition of the impoverished working class didn’t need any reformers as it was natural.He was against any kind of government intervention to alleviate the condition of the distraint masses . He is a truster in the fact that material mastery is indicative of a persons capabilities. (Boland. n. p) As far as this is concerned they are at opposing end. Bellamy is for reforms and equal opportunity and found er for all the members of society . William Sumner was against the occupation of Spain by the Americans and this idea finds a take over in the novel as was he was against the occupation of Spain by the Americans and this idea finds a echo in the novel. Dr Leete denounces the act of aggrandizementâ€Å"argon they France, England, Germany, or hunger, cold, and nakedness? In your day governments were accustomed, on the slightest international misunderstanding, to seize upon the bodies of citizens and deliver them over by hundreds of thousands to death and mutilation, atrophy their treasures the while like water. ” The American society was facing a lot of upheavals and industrial revolution brought urbanization and a signifier of problems . The publishing of Darwin’s origin of species had raise many uncomfortable questions and many endeavours arose to draw the kingdom of God upon earth .These operations also brought changes in the established religions and creeds. Solomon Washington joy sermons can be seen as the early example of The social gospel movement . It tried dish out the problems of the slums of Ohio and brought the workers of 1877 strike to a peaceful negotiation. The proponents of this movement believed in a confluence of Christian dogma with politics . They predicted a brighter picture of tomorrow. Looking back seems to be presenting the same kind of sort of morality and politics and a prospect of a perfect future.Like the social gospel movement the novel gives a concrete shape to the hope of a punter tomorrow. The concept of brotherly love and portion the poor is not an anathema to the Christian doctrine but rather it was bring round as the Victorian society was facing excess of moral violation of individuals in industrial capitalism . Bellamys combination of socialism and religiosity can be as seen an offshoot of the social gospel reform movement as any individual is a product of its time . The thought process of literary artists are shaped by the distillation of ideas his period.The thought process of an individual is not shaped in vacuum . They are either a result of the reaction of doctrines that are prevalent in that period or an influence of other contemporary writers and philosophers. Genius begetter’t produce ides out of spunky but it unique process of price reduction of ideas floating through that particular age . Early century and the great clinical depression saw different intellectuals trying to lay the principles on which the society could get rid of its problem and the kingdom of god was to be established which would transcend competitive and exploitive industrialism of the contemporary American society.Looking is an endeavor on part of Bellamy to show that such ideas are viable and practical. It is practical guide to innovation of a society based on the postulate of the egalitarian principles o social Christianity. The social reform movements from 1820 to 1860 show a distru st of establishes social systems. The gospel reform movement saw that for the jump time the divers(a) denomination of the church came together in a joint risk to eradicate the problems of society . This dream of juncture of dissimilar sects of Christianity is realize in the novel Looking back .Julian asks Mr Barton about the causal agent of disappearance of various sects The answer was that concupiscent impulse of brotherly love was responsible for the founding of a nobler social order as the root cause of this juncture Crisis in the American society was seen as initiative to accomplish the necessary changes . The intact novel can be seen as an attempt to forsee and how to practically implement those changes in society. The turn of the century saw massive problems like unemployment, abuse of corporate powers, poverty, crime, and corruption, inflow of immigrants, child labor and massive depression.These problems gave rise to a reform movement which was termed as the refor m-minded movement. Progressive movement was a natural succession to the progressive movement. The callowness of middle class rose to the affair with a firm religion in fact that every problem has a solution. These problems can be put to end by the educated class . preparation and particular(prenominal)ly women education received special tautness . Consequently women rights were promoted and they started entering the job market as clerks and did other base duties . Edward Bellamy in his novels gave women a lot of rights by the contemporary standards.They received equal buy off despite the fact that they were working for fewer hours . Another hallmark of this period is the fill of voting rights by women. The social order of Bellamy’s utopian world assigns equal but different roles to women. The feminist of the contemporary period like Charlotte Perkins Gilman agree with is assessment. The whole progressive movement resolved round that man has a inherent quality in him to improve his lot . It was rejection of the social Darwinism. The other problem that the progressives tried to address was the end of slavery .The abolitionist movement tried to eradicate this problem . The utopian model stresses comparability as the central point and it is achieved through the equal turn out for all the individuals. It is very important to put down that the progressive movement is accused of not addressing the problems of racial discrimination And Bellamy was under the influence of Herbert Spencer who saw the whites as superior race as result of it being the fittest and the most ablest race . The progressive s believed that the state can play a glacial role in solving the legion(predicate) problems that the American society is experiencing .The authors are naked as a jaybird to trails and the tribulations of society and hence this is exactly the reason hat the fiction is trying to present a solution which is representative of the progressive ideology that state can encourage in the establishment of the heavenly state . The novel also presents the idea of the combination of the various denominations of Christianity and it is reflection of the fact that various creeds of Christianity rose under this reform movement to address the problems that was destroying the moral fabric of the society.Frederick Winslow Taylor can be best described as synthesizer of the thoughts of his times and he gave a solution to the problem of optimizing the productivity of the workers. There was almost a automatic stress on using scientific clearcutness to improve the skills needed to perform a task in the industry . long time of apprentice ship is replaced by this mechanical process. This has a fleeting similarity to the Edwardian concept of building an army of workers. The outstanding improvement in the productivity was result of his innovation in the field of industrial engineering . He is accused of dehumanizing the ultramodern industries .There nee ds a change in the attitude of the workers to optimize the industrial performance according to him change â€Å"consists of the complete revolution in the mental attitude and the habits of all those engaged in the management, as well of the workmen”(Taylor . pg131) Bellamy’s utopia presents the concept that the productivity is going to increase as result of passion for nation. Edward Bellamy has been unnecessarily been accused of being influenced by the Marxist concept of utopian world and he was for quite sometimes ringlet the idea of the perfect state of life in his mind .It was published 40 years before the it . The author himself had a disliking for the class conflict and a godless society In one of his public lectures he gave vent to his urge to write about his passion for heavenly existence â€Å"It is an undiscovered country, no community of men has ever essayed its elysian climes, no human foot step has ever trod its shores. The faith of humanity points to its existence. But I issue that it exists, and we must find it. … ” (Taken from Bellamy’s second lyceum address of 1872). He gave a concrete shape to all his ideas of an ideal society in his novel â€Å"looking backward”.The impact of the novel on the minds of men can be work out from the fact that this novel gave rise to a nationalist movement . Columbia university bespeak philosopher John Dewey historian Charles Beard and editor program of The Atlantic monthly Edward Week to invent a list of writers who exercised a bulky influence on society Edward Bellamy’s Looking back came second on all the three list and it was preceded by Marx’s Das capital. The novel brought about a change in the cerebration of men in all walks of life . The ideas in the novel acted as arising board for other writers to develop and cover the horizon of human intellect.The idea that social injustice is caused by human struggle for physical as well as economic ne ed for a better status launched Veblens provocative and creative career. Allen white the renowned American News idea editor himself admitted to being shaped by the intellectual outpourings of this novel. â€Å"He feels indebted to the blast that he encountered while reading the novel when he was young and the change of heart from the being a conservative to being open minded about the various problems plaguing the contemporary society. He also acknowledges the fact that many youngsters of his time had a similar experience .It was the talk of the town The list of individuals effect by Bellamy’s monumental work Looking backwards is sempiternal . It not only affected the individual members of society but also infused bracing blood into the intellectual thought process of his times . The ideas of social injustice derived from a race for economic betterment came into the forefront. He is a writer who inspires people and draws lines on which others can move forward on their i ntellectual journey. The novel is a showing of social and economic order which is given serious consideration by experts in the respective fields.The economist H. Stanley Jevons says: â€Å"I have gained more from Bellamy than from any single author. He deserves more attention from economists than he has received. The economic system he outlines does stand a rigid examination for workability in its essential features in his treatise. ” The novel presents economic equality in the co-operative commonwealth Despite the fact that the novel deals with utopia it has been not whisked away to be a wishful thinking but has been put to a practical implication The nationalist movement started with the formation of the first nationalist club of Boston in 1888 .The chief characteristics of this movement were unselfishness and it invigorates an extravagance for humanity. The individuals of society don’t struggle with each other rather they co-operated with each others. It adopted a tolerant attitude towards people who would be critical of this movement. patriotism was a highly cherished ideal of this movement . Social reforms had to taken up by a nation so as to reap its harvest. Works Cited Auerbach Am Lit Hist. (1994); â€Å"The Nation Organized”: Utopian Impotence in Edward Bellamys Looking Backward. Retrieved contact 17, 2008 from: http://alh. oxfordjournals. org/cgi/reprint/6/1/24Boland joseph(1995)U. S political thought . retrieved http://www. uoregon. edu/~jboland/lect_12. hypertext mark-up language Richard A. Spurgeon (1997). The ghostly Ethics of Edward Bellamy and Jonathan Edwards. Journal of Utopian Studies. Vol 8. Retrieved border district 17, 2008 from: http://www. questia. com/googleScholar. qst? docId=5000543586 Bellamy, Edward. (2000) Looking Backward. Applewood books. ISBN-10: 155709506X Native Americanism” (Brownsons Works, 10:17-37). retrieved Sumner, William Graham. Essays of William Graham Sumner. Ed. Albert G. Keller a nd Maurice R. Davie. Vol. 1. New Haven: Yale UP, 1934 retrievedhttp://www. encyclopedia. com/doc/1G1-56061945. html Wilmot Chester,the struggle for Europe 1954 pg 477 SCOTT McLEMEE â€Å"Back to the emerging” December 24, 2000. Retrieved shew 17, 2008 from: http://www. nytimes. com/books/00/12/24/bookend/bookend. html Vergillus, Ferm, (1936), First Adventures in doctrine (New York: Charles Scribner & Sons). Retrieved March 17, 2008 from: http://www. apologeticspress. org/rr/reprints/Impact-of-Evolutionary-Philosop. pdf W. Taylor, Frederick Scientific Management, pg 131. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from: http://www. skymark. com/resources/leaders/taylor. asp\r\n'